Peul (Fulani, Fulbe, Fula) herdsmen with traditional wide-brimmed fibre-and-leather conical hats meet at the weekly market in front of Djenné's Great Mosque. A colourful multiethnic gathering of herders and traders converges at the mosque from the surrounding regions and fertile flood plains of the Niger River inland delta in central Mali.
Digital film scan, Asahi Pentax Spotmatic, shot directly under the noonday sun, circa 1976.
The Great Mosque of Djenné towers over the market in a seemingly apocalyptic backdrop on this day. The mosque is considered the world’s largest adobe building and one of the greatest achievements of Sudano-Sahelian architecture, unique to the semi-arid Sahel zone that stretches across northern Africa just south of an encroaching Sahara.
These Peul herdsmen are likely from the class of “free nobles” (mostly nomadic herders, religious and political leaders, some tradesmen and sedentary cultivators) at the top of a highly stratified caste-based Peul society.
Ethnographers distinguish this class from lower-tiered occupational groups or “castes” (griot story tellers and song-praisers, artisans, blacksmiths, potters, woodworkers, dress makers) and descendants of slaves (labourers, brick makers, house builders).
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Postrscript - The enchanting Arabian Nights imagery emanating out of this ancient marketplace at the time if this photo shoot (1976) is reminiscent of a seemingly bygone Sahelian era devoid of smartphones, credit cards and packaged safari tours.
Nowadays, nascent tourism is on hold and easy access to markets, pastures and farmlands is hampered as ethnic strife and inter-communal violence continue to erupt under a fragile or failed Malian state with a troubled history of military coups.
The current military junta relies on mercenaries from the private Russian-backed Wagner Group for its security needs, coinciding with the recent French withdrawal of troops from the region. By providing protection to the Malian military regime, the Moscow-centered paramilitary group has increased its power and access to Mali's scarce natural resources.
In 2018,
Human Rights Watch reported that the Mopti region of central Mali has become an epicentre of inter-rethnic conflict, fuelled by a steady escalation of violence by armed Islamist groups largely allied with Al Qaeda’s advance from the north since 2015.
Recruitment to the militant Islamist movement from Peul pastoral herding communities has inflamed tensions within sedentary agrarian communities (Bambara, Dogon, Tellem, Bozo and others) who rely on access to agricultural lands for their livelihood.
Predominantly Muslim but opposing ethnic self-defence militias on both sides have been formed for the protection of their own respective communities. This has contributed to a continuous cycle of violent attacks and reprisals touching villages and hamlets, pastures and farmlands, and some marketplaces.
While communal tensions are profoundly connected to a larger ethnopolitical conflict unfolding in northern Mali, chronic insecurities around the ancient town of Djenné and in the broader central regions of Mali are exacerbated by longstanding indigenous concerns over a struggle for scarce natural resources - agricultural land for settled farmers versus water and grazing land for semi-nomadic Peul herdsmen.
Efforts at mediation in the area around Djenné and the grand mosque include a
Humanitarian Agreement specifically among Bambara and Bozo farmers, Dogan "hunters" protecting farmers' interests and Peul herders, all committed to guaranteeing the freedom of movement of people, goods and livestock in the "Circle of Djenné" situated in the Mopti region of central Mali.
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